Reader-Based Prose - Systrophe

A kind of public writing: a text that is composed (or revised) with an audience in mind.

Reading is the process of extracting meaning from a written or printed text.

In an argument or debate, the presentation of evidence and reasoning that is meant to weaken or undermine an opponent's claim.

Received pronunciation (RP) is a once prestigious variety of British English spoken without an identifiable regional accent.

The listener, reader, or observer in the communication process.

A pronoun that expresses mutual action or relationship. In English the reciprocal pronouns are "each other" and "one another."

An observation that draws attention away from the central issue in an argument or discussion.

(1) Any feature of a language that is not needed in order to identify a linguistic unit. (2) In generative grammar, any language feature that can be predicted on the basis of other language features. (3) The repetition of the same idea or item of information within a phrase, clause, or sentence: a pleonasm or tautology.

A reduplicative is a word or lexeme that contains two identical or very similar parts.

The relationship between two grammatical units, such as a pronoun and a noun.

A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.

A referent is the person, thing, or idea that a word or expression stands for.

In semantics, reflected meaning is a phenomenon whereby a single word or phrase is associated with more than one meaning.

A pronoun formed by adding "-self" or "-selves" to a form of the personal pronoun, used as an object in the sentence to refer to a previously named noun or pronoun.

The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing points of view.

A regional dialect is the distinct form of a language spoken in a certain geographical area.

Regionalism is a word or expression that is characteristic of a particular geographic area.

One of many styles or varieties of language determined by such factors as social occasion, purpose, and audience.

A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding "d" or "ed" (or in some cases "t") to the base form.

A theory of descriptive grammar in which syntactic operations (or relationships, such as those between subject and object) rather than syntactic structures are used to define grammatical processes.

An adverb ("where," "when," or "why") that introduces a relative clause, also known as a relative adverb clause.

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose) or a relative adverb (where, when, why).

A pronoun that introduces an adjective clause.

The process by which a speaker recognizes a speech error and repeats what has been said with some sort of correction.

A quick, witty reply or an exchange of witty remarks.

In linguistics and rhetoric, repetition is an instance of using a word, phrase, or clause more than once in a short passage--dwelling on a point.

A document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and purpose.

The report of one speaker or writer on the words said, written, or thought by someone else.

A verb used to indicate that discourse is being quoted or paraphrased.

The collection and evaluation of information about a particular subject.

Definition of a research paper with concise guidelines and examples.

An informal term for the specialized language (or jargon) sometimes used by restaurant employees and on menus.

A restrictive element is a word, phrase, or dependent clause that limits (or restricts) the meaning of the element it modifies while providing information essential to the meaning of the sentence.

A modifier that repeats a key word at the end of a sentence and then adds informative or descriptive details related to that word.

A retronym is a new word or phrase created for an old object or concept whose original name has become associated with something else or is no longer unique.

An article that presents a critical evaluation of a text, performance, or production.

Revision is the process of rereading a text and making changes (in content, organization, sentence structures, and word choice) to improve it.

(1) A speaker or writer. (2) A teacher of rhetoric.

Rhetoric is the study and practice of effective communication.

A form of criticism (or close reading) that employs the principles of rhetoric to examine the interactions between a text, an author, and an audience.

In classical rhetoric, the five overlapping offices or divisions of the rhetorical process.

A modern (or postmodern) view of rhetoric as an inherent feature of language or as a condition of our existence as language-using creatures rather than an overarching theory of discourse or communication.

(1) A general term for any strategy employed by a rhetor to advance an argument. (2) In genre studies, a term introduced by linguist John M. Swales to describe a particular rhetorical or linguistic pattern, stage, or structure conventionally found in a text or in a segment of a text.

Rhetorical punctuation (also known as elocutionary punctuation) is a system of punctuation intended to help people read a text aloud or hear how it is supposed to sound.

A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.

The context of a rhetorical act; minimally, made up of a rhetor, an issue, and an audience.

A writer's subject, audience, and persona (or voice).

(1) A master or teacher of rhetoric. (2) An eloquent speaker or writer.

A rhopalic is a sentence or a line of poetry in which each word contains one letter or one syllable more than the previous word.

Identity or close similarity of sound between accented syllables.

A rhyming compound is a compound word that contains rhyming elements.

A form of slang commonly associated with London Cockneys though it has never been a major feature of Cockney usage and can be found in other parts of Britain as well as in parts of Australia and the U.S.

(1) In phonetics, the sense of movement in speech, marked by the stress, timing, and quantity of syllables. (2) In poetics, the recurring alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound and silence in sentences or lines of verse.

A question deliberately worded in a puzzling manner and presented as a problem to be solved.

A negotiating strategy in which opposing views are described as objectively as possible and common goals are identified in an effort to establish common ground and reach agreement.

A root is a word from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes.

An image, narrative, or fact that shapes an individual's perception of the world and interpretation of reality.

Sentence style that appears to follow the mind as it worries a problem through.

In prescriptive grammar, two independent clauses that have been run together without an appropriate conjunction and/or mark of punctuation between them.

At the beginning of a conversation, letter, email, or other form of communication, a polite greeting, expression of good will, or other sign of recognition.

The linguistic theory that the semantic structure of a language shapes or limits the ways in which a native speaker forms conceptions of the world.

A mocking, often ironic or satirical remark, usually intended to wound as well as amuse.

A text or performance that uses irony, derision, or wit to expose or attack human vice, foolishness, or stupidity.

Quotation marks used around a word or phrase not to indicate a direct quotation but to suggest that the expression is somehow inappropriate or misleading.

A term in classical rhetoric for any one of the figures of speech: a deviation from conventional word order.

See "linguistic insecurity."

The most common vowel sound in English, represented as ə in the International Phonetic Alphabet.

(1) Writing about scientific subject matter, often in a non-technical manner for an audience of non-scientists. (2) Writing that reports scientific observations and results in a manner governed by specific conventions.

A broad term for the varieties of the English language spoken in Scotland.

Information that has been gathered by researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications.

A term introduced by rhetorician Edwin Black to describe the role assumed by an audience in response to a speech.

Use of the imperative mood and the pronouns "you," "your," and "yours" to address a reader or listener directly.

Second-person pronouns ("you," "yours," "yourself") are pronouns used when a speaker addresses one or more individuals. Other second-person pronouns (such as "thee" and "ye") have been used in the past, and some (such as "y'all" and "yous") are still used today in certain dialects of English.

A prose style characterized by sequences of fairly short simple sentences.

In semantics and historical linguistics, any change in the meaning(s) of a word, especially over the course of time.

A semantic field is a set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning.

The process by which the meaning of a word becomes less general or less inclusive than its earlier meaning.

The field of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language.

A phenomenon whereby the uninterrupted repetition of a word eventually leads to a sense that the word has lost its meaning.

A multi-word construction based on an auxiliary verb and having some of the same grammatical characteristics.

A mark of punctuation ( ; ) used to connect independent clauses and indicating a closer relationship between the clauses than a period does.

The theory and study of signs and symbols, especially as elements of language or other systems of communication.

The individual who initiates a message in the communication process.

A sentence is the largest independent unit of grammar: it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.

A word that modifies a sentence as a whole or a clause within a sentence.

The conventional way of using capital letters in a sentence--that is, capitalizing only the first word and any proper nouns.

The process of joining two or more short, simple sentences to make one longer sentence--an alternative to traditional grammar instruction.

A method of grammar instruction that relies on a standardized framework of lines and branches to reveal the syntactic structure of a sentence.

A sentence fragment is a group of words that begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point but is grammatically incomplete.

In rhetoric and composition studies, an exercise in which students study a sample sentence and then imitate its structures, supplying their own material.

The number of words in a sentence.

A type of negation that affects the meaning of an entire main clause.

In a composition, the practice of varying the length and structure of sentences to avoid monotony and provide appropriate emphasis.

In classical rhetoric, a sententia is a maxim, proverb, aphorism, or popular quotation: a brief expression of conventional wisdom.

The comma that precedes the conjunction before the final item in a series.

A series is a list of three or more items, usually arranged in parallel form.

A form of public discourse on a religious or moral subject, usually delivered as part of a church service.

Given to the use of long words.

The place and time in which the action of a narrative takes place.

Words and phrases that demean, ignore, or stereotype members of either sex or that needlessly call attention to gender.

See "clipping."

A sentence construction in the passive voice in which the subject is absent altogether rather than reduced to a prepositional phrase introduced by "by."

Any motion, gesture, image, sound, pattern, or event that conveys meaning.

A phrase, clause, or sentence that introduces a quotation.

A combination of rhetorical strategies employed in African-American speech communities--in particular, the use of irony and indirection to express ideas and opinions.

A letter that is usually left unpronounced.

A figure of speech in which two fundamentally unlike things are explicitly compared, usually in a phrase introduced by "like" or "as."

A sentence with only one independent clause.

A dialect of the English language that is used in Singapore, a lingua franca influenced by Chinese and Malay.

The simplest form of a noun (the form that appears in a dictionary): a category of number denoting one person, thing, or instance.

In classical rhetoric, proof from character that depends on a rhetor's reputation in the community.

An occasion in which the outcome is significantly different from what was expected or considered appropriate.

Intentionally obscure speech or writing.

An informal nonstandard variety of speech characterized by newly coined and rapidly changing words and phrases.

A forward sloping line (/) used as a mark of punctuation in writing and printing.

An accidental mistake in speaking, usually trivial, sometimes amusing.

A fallacy in which a course of action is objected to on the grounds that once taken it will lead to additional actions until some undesirable consequence results.

A short, attention-getting expression (or catchphrase) used in promoting a product, candidate, or cause.

A facetious term for slurred and compressed speech

Abusive and sarcastic speech or writing--a form of invective.

Defined by comedian Rich Hall as "a word that doesn't appear in the dictionary but should."

A type of cliché or formulaic expression that "can be used in an entirely open array of different jokey variants by lazy journalists and writers" (Geoffrey K. Pullum).

A variety of speech associated with a particular group within a society.

Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.

An argument (or series of arguments) using the question-and-answer method employed by Socrates in Plato's "Dialogues."

Phrase coined by comedian George Carlin to describe euphemistic expressions that "take the life out of life."

A nonstandard usage or grammatical construction.

Most commonly a pejorative term for a plausible but fallacious argument or for deceptive argumentation in general.

Reasoning that appears sound but is misleading or fallacious.

Professional teachers of rhetoric (as well as many other subjects) in ancient Greece.

In logic, sorites is a chain of categorical syllogisms or enthymemes in which the intermediate conclusions have been omitted.

In historical linguistics, a sound change is a change in the sound system of a language over a period of time.

An association between particular sound sequences and particular meanings in speech.

In a conceptual metaphor, the source domain is the conceptual domain from which metaphorical expressions are drawn.

The varieties of the English language that are used in South Africa.

A general term for the areas of a page left blank--in particular, the areas between words, letters, lines of type, or paragraphs.

An informal and sometimes pejorative term for a mixture of the Spanish and English languages, especially as used by bilingual speakers in the U.S.

In composition, a method of organization in which details are presented as they are (or were) located in space.

(1) In linguistics, one who speaks. (2) In rhetoric, an orator. (3) In literary studies, a narrator.

See "semantic narrowing."

In composition, words that are concrete and particular rather than general, abstract, or vague.

Communication through spoken words. The study of speech sounds is the branch of linguistics known as phonetics. The study of sound changes in a language is phonology.

In rhetoric, a formal address delivered to an audience--an oration.

In linguistics, an utterance defined in terms of a speaker's intentions and the effects it has on a listener.

A term in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology for a group of people who use the same variety of a language and who share specific rules for speaking and for interpreting speech.

A computer application that identifies possible misspellings in a text by referring to the accepted spellings in a database.

In written language, the choice and arrangement of letters that form words.

An inflammatory Internet post that corrects the spelling in another post, usually as a way of attacking the writer rather than responding logically to the writer's point.

The use of a pronunciation that is based on spelling rather than in accordance with a word's conventional pronunciation

Any organized effort to simplify the system of English orthography.

In morphology, a fragment of a word used in the formation of new words.

A construction in which one or more words come between the infinitive marker "to" and the verb.

The ways in which the English language is transmitted through a conventional system of sounds.

A transposition of sounds of two or more words.

The rehearsed spontaneity, the studied carelessness, the well-practiced naturalness that lies at the center of convincing discourse of any sort.

A squinting modifier is an ambiguous modifier (usually an adverb, such as "only") that appears to qualify the words both before and after it.

The view that grammatical constructions do not have strict boundaries but occur on a continuum.

Stacking is an informal term for the piling up of modifiers before a noun.

Stacking the deck is a fallacy in which evidence that supports an opposing argument is simply rejected or ignored.

Linguistic and non-linguistic forms and strategies that show a speaker's commitment to the status of the information that he or she is providing.

The dialect of English that is generally used in professional writing in the United States and taught in American schools.

The variety of English that is generally used in professional writing in Britain (or in England or in southeast England) and taught in British schools.

A form of the English language that is spoken and written by educated native users. In fact, linguists have not yet established that there is or is not a standard English, let alone provided a satisfactory definition.

In classical rhetoric, the process of, first, identifying the central issues in a dispute and then finding appropriate arguments by which to address those issues.

A verb used primarily to describe a state or situation as opposed to an action or process.

As defined by C.S. Lewis, a word that assigns "a type of character or behavior" to a person's legal, social, or economic rank or status.

A stem is the form of a word before any inflectional affixes are added.

The principle (formulated by linguist Noam Chomsky) that what a person says or writes is not determined by external circumstances.

A definition that assigns meaning to a word, sometimes without regard for common usage.

In phonetics, a sound made by completely blocking the flow of air and then releasing it.

A fallacy in which an opponent's argument is overstated or misrepresented in order to be attacked or refuted.

Stream of consciousness is a narrative technique that gives the impression of a mind at work, jumping from one observation or reflection to the next without conventional transitions.

In phonetics, stress is the degree of emphasis given a sound or syllable in speech.

A horizontal line drawn through text.

See "irregular verb."

A metaphorical system in which one complex concept (typically abstract) is presented in terms of some other (usually more concrete) concept.

Structure-dependency is the linguistic principle that grammatical processes function primarily on structures in sentences, not on single words or sequences of words.

Defined by Tom McArthur in "The Oxford Companion to the English Language" (1992) as an informal, late-20th-century term for "a word created and used to produce a special effect or attract attention, as if it were part of the performance of a stunt man or a conjuror."

Narrowly interpreted as those figures that ornament speech or writing; broadly, as representing a manifestation of the person speaking or writing.

A set of editing and formatting standards for use by students, researchers, journalists, and other writers.

A branch of applied linguistics concerned with the study of style in texts, especially (but not exclusively) in literary works.

The part of a sentence that indicates what it is about.

The case of a pronoun when it is the subject of a clause, a subject complement, or an appositive to a subject or a subject complement.

Subject-verb agreement is the correspondence of a verb with its subject in person and number.

A type of adverb (or sentence adverb) that expresses a condition or hypothesis.

The mood of a verb expressing wishes, stipulating demands, or making statements contrary to fact.

A type of metaphor (or figurative comparison) in which one of the terms (either the vehicle or the tenor) is implied rather than stated explicitly.

An adverb used in front of an adjective to heighten its meaning.

A group of words that begins with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction. A subordinate clause has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence.

A conjunction that introduces a dependent clause.

Words, phrases, and clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on (or subordinate to) another.

See: subordinating conjunction

A word or group of words that functions as a noun.

In grammar, the replacement of a word or phrase with a "filler" word to avoid repetition.

Saying words silently to oneself while reading.

A letter or group of letters added to the end of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending.

A shortened version of a text that highlights its key points.

A modifier that appears at the end of a sentence and serves to summarize the idea of the main clause.

The form of an adjective that suggests the most or the least of something.

In morphology, the use of two or more phonetically distinct roots for different forms of the same word.

In transformational grammar, the outward form of a sentence.

See "ellipsis" (definition #1)

The basic word order of main clauses and subordinate clauses in present-day English: Subject + Verb + Object.

A word or phrase that is generally considered blasphemous, obscene, vulgar, or otherwise offensive.

One or more letters representing a unit of spoken language consisting of a single uninterrupted sound.

Syllepsis is a rhetorical term for a kind of ellipsis in which one word (usually a verb) is understood differently in relation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs.

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

A person, place, action, word, or thing that (by association, resemblance, or convention) represents something other than itself.

A term used by 20th-century rhetorician Kenneth Burke to refer, in general, to systems of communication that rely on symbols.

Symbolism refers to the use of one object or action (a symbol) to represent or suggest something else.

A rhetorical term for the repetition of words or phrases at both the beginning and end of successive clauses or verses: a combination of anaphora and epiphora.

The piling up of adjectives, often in the spirit of invective.

Synchoresis is a rhetorical term for a type of concession made to create an impression of fairness and impartiality.

The study of a language at one period in time (usually the present).

A traditional term in philology for a contraction within a word through the loss of a vowel sound or letter.

Syndeton is a rhetorical term for a sentence style in which words, phrases, or clauses are joined by conjunctions.

A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or the whole for a part.

A grammatical construction in which agreement or reference is determined by sense rather than the strict requirements of syntax.

In semantics and cognitive linguistics, synesthesia is a metaphorical process by which one sense modality is described or characterized in terms of another, such as "a bright sound" or "a quiet color."

The forgiving of injuries.

Words having the same or nearly the same meaning.

See "monologophobia."

The presence of two or more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words.

See "anacoluthon."

See parts of speech.

In psycholinguistics, a speaker's tendency to reuse the syntactic structure of a previous utterance when given a choice between two different structures having roughly the same meaning.

(1) The study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences (and one of the major components of grammar). (2) The arrangement of words in a sentence.

The study of the relationship between language and its functions in social settings.

Systrophe is a rhetorical term for an expansive series of definitions, descriptions, or tropes.