Reading - Syntax
A glossary of grammatical and rhetorical terms, from READING to SYNTAX. Click on a term for definitions, examples, word history, pronunciation guide, and links to related articles.
reading
The process of extracting meaning from a written or printed text.
The process of extracting meaning from a written or printed text.
received pronunciation
A once prestigious variety of British English spoken without an identifiable regional accent.
A once prestigious variety of British English spoken without an identifiable regional accent.
reciprocal pronoun
A pronoun that expresses mutual action or relationship. In English the reciprocal pronouns are "each other" and "one another."
A pronoun that expresses mutual action or relationship. In English the reciprocal pronouns are "each other" and "one another."
red herring
An observation that draws attention away from the central issue in an argument or discussion.
An observation that draws attention away from the central issue in an argument or discussion.
redundancy
(1) Any feature of a language that is not needed in order to identify a linguistic unit. (2) In generative grammar, any language feature that can be predicted on the basis of other language features. (3) The repetition of the same idea or item of information within a phrase, clause, or sentence: a pleonasm or tautology.
(1) Any feature of a language that is not needed in order to identify a linguistic unit. (2) In generative grammar, any language feature that can be predicted on the basis of other language features. (3) The repetition of the same idea or item of information within a phrase, clause, or sentence: a pleonasm or tautology.
reduplicative
A word or lexeme that contains two identical or very similar parts.
A word or lexeme that contains two identical or very similar parts.
reference
The relationship between two grammatical units, such as a pronoun and a noun.
The relationship between two grammatical units, such as a pronoun and a noun.
reference grammar
A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences.
referent
The person, thing, or idea that a word or expression stands for.
The person, thing, or idea that a word or expression stands for.
reflexive pronoun
A pronoun formed by adding "-self" or "-selves" to a form of the personal pronoun, used as an object in the sentence to refer to a previously named noun or pronoun.
A pronoun formed by adding "-self" or "-selves" to a form of the personal pronoun, used as an object in the sentence to refer to a previously named noun or pronoun.
refutation
The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing points of view.
The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters opposing points of view.
regionalism
A word or expression that is characteristic of a particular geographic area.
A word or expression that is characteristic of a particular geographic area.
register
One of many styles or varieties of language determined by such factors as social occasion, purpose, and audience.
One of many styles or varieties of language determined by such factors as social occasion, purpose, and audience.
regular verb
A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding "d" or "ed" (or in some cases "t") to the base form.
A verb that forms its past tense and past participle by adding "d" or "ed" (or in some cases "t") to the base form.
relative clause
A clause introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose).
A clause introduced by a relative pronoun (which, that, who, whom, whose).
relative pronoun
A pronoun that introduces an adjective clause.
A pronoun that introduces an adjective clause.
repair
The process by which a speaker recognizes a speech error and repeats what has been said with some sort of correction.
The process by which a speaker recognizes a speech error and repeats what has been said with some sort of correction.
repetition
An instance of using a word, phrase, or clause more than once in a short passage--dwelling on a point.
An instance of using a word, phrase, or clause more than once in a short passage--dwelling on a point.
report
A document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and purpose.
A document that presents information in an organized format for a specific audience and purpose.
reporting verb
A verb used to indicate that discourse is being quoted or paraphrased.
A verb used to indicate that discourse is being quoted or paraphrased.
restrictive element
A word, phrase, or clause that limits or restricts the meaning of the element it modifies while providing information essential to the meaning of the sentence.
A word, phrase, or clause that limits or restricts the meaning of the element it modifies while providing information essential to the meaning of the sentence.
retronym
A new word or phrase created for an old object or concept whose original name has become associated with something else or is no longer unique.
A new word or phrase created for an old object or concept whose original name has become associated with something else or is no longer unique.
revision
The process of rereading a text and making changes (in content, organization, sentence structures, and word choice) to improve it.
The process of rereading a text and making changes (in content, organization, sentence structures, and word choice) to improve it.
rhetor
(1) A speaker or writer. (2) A teacher of rhetoric.
(1) A speaker or writer. (2) A teacher of rhetoric.
rhetoric
The study and practice of effective communication.
The study and practice of effective communication.
rhetorical canons
In classical rhetoric, the five overlapping offices or divisions of the rhetorical process.
In classical rhetoric, the five overlapping offices or divisions of the rhetorical process.
rhetoricality
A modern (or postmodern) view of rhetoric as an inherent feature of language or as a condition of our existence as language-using creatures rather than an overarching theory of discourse or communication.
A modern (or postmodern) view of rhetoric as an inherent feature of language or as a condition of our existence as language-using creatures rather than an overarching theory of discourse or communication.
rhetorical question
A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.
A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.
rhetorical situation
The context of a rhetorical act; minimally, made up of a rhetor, an issue, and an audience.
The context of a rhetorical act; minimally, made up of a rhetor, an issue, and an audience.
rhetorical stance
A writer's subject, audience, and persona (or voice).
A writer's subject, audience, and persona (or voice).
rhetorician
(1) A master or teacher of rhetoric. (2) An eloquent speaker or writer.
(1) A master or teacher of rhetoric. (2) An eloquent speaker or writer.
rhyme
Identity or close similarity of sound between accented syllables.
Identity or close similarity of sound between accented syllables.
rhyming slang
A form of slang commonly associated with London Cockneys though it has never been a major feature of Cockney usage and can be found in other parts of Britain as well as in parts of Australia and the U.S.
A form of slang commonly associated with London Cockneys though it has never been a major feature of Cockney usage and can be found in other parts of Britain as well as in parts of Australia and the U.S.
rhythm
(1) In phonetics, the sense of movement in speech, marked by the stress, timing, and quantity of syllables. (2) In poetics, the recurring alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound and silence in sentences or lines of verse.
(1) In phonetics, the sense of movement in speech, marked by the stress, timing, and quantity of syllables. (2) In poetics, the recurring alternation of strong and weak elements in the flow of sound and silence in sentences or lines of verse.
root
A word from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes.
A word from which other words grow, usually through the addition of prefixes and suffixes.
root metaphor
An image, narrative, or fact that shapes an individual's perception of the world and interpretation of reality.
An image, narrative, or fact that shapes an individual's perception of the world and interpretation of reality.
running style
Sentence style that appears to follow the mind as it worries a problem through.
Sentence style that appears to follow the mind as it worries a problem through.
run-on sentence
See "fused sentence."
See "fused sentence."
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
The linguistic theory that the semantic structure of a language shapes or limits the ways in which a native speaker forms conceptions of the world.
The linguistic theory that the semantic structure of a language shapes or limits the ways in which a native speaker forms conceptions of the world.
sarcasm
A mocking, often ironic or satirical remark.
A mocking, often ironic or satirical remark.
satire
A text or performance that uses irony, derision, or wit to expose or attack human vice, foolishness, or stupidity.
A text or performance that uses irony, derision, or wit to expose or attack human vice, foolishness, or stupidity.
scheme
A term in classical rhetoric for any one of the figures of speech: a deviation from conventional word order.
A term in classical rhetoric for any one of the figures of speech: a deviation from conventional word order.
schizoglossia
See "linguistic insecurity."
See "linguistic insecurity."
secondary source
Information that has been gathered by researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications.
Information that has been gathered by researchers and recorded in books, articles, and other publications.
segregating style
A prose style characterized by sequences of fairly short simple sentences.
A prose style characterized by sequences of fairly short simple sentences.
semantic field
A set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning.
A set of words (or lexemes) related in meaning.
semantic narrowing
The process by which the meaning of a word becomes less general or less inclusive than its earlier meaning.
The process by which the meaning of a word becomes less general or less inclusive than its earlier meaning.
semantics
The field of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language.
The field of linguistics concerned with the study of meaning in language.
semicolon
A mark of punctuation ( ; ) used to connect independent clauses and indicating a closer relationship between the clauses than a period does.
A mark of punctuation ( ; ) used to connect independent clauses and indicating a closer relationship between the clauses than a period does.
semiotics
The theory and study of signs and symbols, especially as elements of language or other systems of communication.
The theory and study of signs and symbols, especially as elements of language or other systems of communication.
sentence
The largest independent unit of grammar: it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
The largest independent unit of grammar: it begins with a capital letter and ends with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
sentence adverb
A word that modifies a sentence as a whole or a clause within a sentence.
A word that modifies a sentence as a whole or a clause within a sentence.
sentence combining
The process of joining two or more short, simple sentences to make one longer sentence--an alternative to traditional grammar instruction.
The process of joining two or more short, simple sentences to make one longer sentence--an alternative to traditional grammar instruction.
sentence fragment
See "fragment."
See "fragment."
sententia
See "proverb."
See "proverb."
serial comma
The comma that precedes the conjunction before the final item in a series.
The comma that precedes the conjunction before the final item in a series.
series
A list of three or more items, usually arranged in parallel form.
A list of three or more items, usually arranged in parallel form.
sesquipedalian
Given to the use of long words.
Given to the use of long words.
setting
The place and time in which the action of a narrative takes place.
The place and time in which the action of a narrative takes place.
shortening
See "clipping."
See "clipping."
sign
Any motion, gesture, image, sound, pattern, or event that conveys meaning.
Any motion, gesture, image, sound, pattern, or event that conveys meaning.
signal phrase
A phrase, clause, or sentence that introduces a quotation.
A phrase, clause, or sentence that introduces a quotation.
silent letter
A letter that is usually left unpronounced.
A letter that is usually left unpronounced.
simile
A figure of speech in which two fundamentally unlike things are explicitly compared, usually in a phrase introduced by "like" or "as."
A figure of speech in which two fundamentally unlike things are explicitly compared, usually in a phrase introduced by "like" or "as."
simple sentence
A sentence with only one independent clause.
A sentence with only one independent clause.
singular
The simplest form of a noun (the form that appears in a dictionary): a category of number denoting one person, thing, or instance.
The simplest form of a noun (the form that appears in a dictionary): a category of number denoting one person, thing, or instance.
situated ethos
In classical rhetoric, proof from character that depends on a rhetor's reputation in the community.
In classical rhetoric, proof from character that depends on a rhetor's reputation in the community.
situational irony
An occasion in which the outcome is significantly different from what was expected or considered appropriate.
An occasion in which the outcome is significantly different from what was expected or considered appropriate.
skotison
Intentionally obscure speech or writing.
Intentionally obscure speech or writing.
slang
An informal nonstandard variety of speech characterized by newly coined and rapidly changing words and phrases.
An informal nonstandard variety of speech characterized by newly coined and rapidly changing words and phrases.
slash
A forward sloping line (/) used as a mark of punctuation in writing and printing.
A forward sloping line (/) used as a mark of punctuation in writing and printing.
slip of the tongue
An accidental mistake in speaking, usually trivial, sometimes amusing.
An accidental mistake in speaking, usually trivial, sometimes amusing.
slippery slope
A fallacy in which a course of action is objected to on the grounds that once taken it will lead to additional actions until some undesirable consequence results.
A fallacy in which a course of action is objected to on the grounds that once taken it will lead to additional actions until some undesirable consequence results.
slogan
A short, attention-getting expression (or catchphrase) used in promoting a product, candidate, or cause.
A short, attention-getting expression (or catchphrase) used in promoting a product, candidate, or cause.
sociolinguistics
The study of the relationship between language and society.
The study of the relationship between language and society.
soft language
Phrase coined by comedian George Carlin to describe euphemistic expressions that "take the life out of life."
Phrase coined by comedian George Carlin to describe euphemistic expressions that "take the life out of life."
solecism
A nonstandard usage or grammatical construction.
A nonstandard usage or grammatical construction.
sophism
Most commonly a pejorative term for a plausible but fallacious argument or for deceptive argumentation in general.
Most commonly a pejorative term for a plausible but fallacious argument or for deceptive argumentation in general.
Sophists
Professional teachers of rhetoric (as well as many other subjects) in ancient Greece.
Professional teachers of rhetoric (as well as many other subjects) in ancient Greece.
source domain
See "conceptual domain" and "conceptual metaphor."
See "conceptual domain" and "conceptual metaphor."
specialization
See "semantic narrowing."
See "semantic narrowing."
speech
(1) Communication through spoken words. (2) A formal address delivered to an audience.
(1) Communication through spoken words. (2) A formal address delivered to an audience.
speech act
In linguistics, an utterance defined in terms of a speaker's intentions and the effects it has on a listener.
In linguistics, an utterance defined in terms of a speaker's intentions and the effects it has on a listener.
spelling
In written language, the choice and arrangement of letters that form words.
In written language, the choice and arrangement of letters that form words.
split infinitive
A construction in which one or more words come between the infinitive marker "to" and the verb.
A construction in which one or more words come between the infinitive marker "to" and the verb.
spoonerism
A transposition of sounds of two or more words.
A transposition of sounds of two or more words.
sprezzatura
The rehearsed spontaneity, the studied carelessness, the well-practiced naturalness that lies at the center of convincing discourse of any sort.
The rehearsed spontaneity, the studied carelessness, the well-practiced naturalness that lies at the center of convincing discourse of any sort.
squinting modifier
An ambiguous modifier (usually an adverb).
An ambiguous modifier (usually an adverb).
squish
The view that grammatical constructions do not have strict boundaries but occur on a continuum.
The view that grammatical constructions do not have strict boundaries but occur on a continuum.
stacking
The piling up of modifiers before a noun.
The piling up of modifiers before a noun.
stance
Linguistic and non-linguistic forms and strategies that show a speaker's commitment to the status of the information that he or she is providing.
Linguistic and non-linguistic forms and strategies that show a speaker's commitment to the status of the information that he or she is providing.
Standard American English
The dialect of English that is generally used in professional writing in the United States and taught in American schools.
The dialect of English that is generally used in professional writing in the United States and taught in American schools.
Standard British English
The variety of English that is generally used in professional writing in Britain (or in England or in southeast England) and taught in British schools.
The variety of English that is generally used in professional writing in Britain (or in England or in southeast England) and taught in British schools.
Standard English
A form of the English language that is spoken and written by educated native users. In fact, linguists have not yet established that there is or is not a standard English, let alone provided a satisfactory definition.
A form of the English language that is spoken and written by educated native users. In fact, linguists have not yet established that there is or is not a standard English, let alone provided a satisfactory definition.
stasis
In classical rhetoric, the process of, first, identifying the central issues in a dispute and then finding appropriate arguments by which to address those issues.
In classical rhetoric, the process of, first, identifying the central issues in a dispute and then finding appropriate arguments by which to address those issues.
stative verb
A verb used primarily to describe a state or situation as opposed to an action or process.
A verb used primarily to describe a state or situation as opposed to an action or process.
stem
See "base form."
See "base form."
stimulus freedom
The principle (formulated by linguist Noam Chomsky) that what a person says or writes is not determined by external circumstances.
The principle (formulated by linguist Noam Chomsky) that what a person says or writes is not determined by external circumstances.
stipulative definition
A definition that assigns meaning to a word, sometimes without regard for common usage.
A definition that assigns meaning to a word, sometimes without regard for common usage.
straw man
A fallacy in which an opponent's argument is overstated or misrepresented in order to be attacked or refuted.
A fallacy in which an opponent's argument is overstated or misrepresented in order to be attacked or refuted.
strong verb
See "irregular verb."
See "irregular verb."
stunt word
Defined by Tom McArthur in "The Oxford Companion to the English Language" (1992) as an informal, late-20th-century term for "a word created and used to produce a special effect or attract attention, as if it were part of the performance of a stunt man or a conjuror."
Defined by Tom McArthur in "The Oxford Companion to the English Language" (1992) as an informal, late-20th-century term for "a word created and used to produce a special effect or attract attention, as if it were part of the performance of a stunt man or a conjuror."
style
Narrowly interpreted as those figures that ornament speech or writing; broadly, as representing a manifestation of the person speaking or writing.
Narrowly interpreted as those figures that ornament speech or writing; broadly, as representing a manifestation of the person speaking or writing.
subject
The part of a sentence that indicates what it is about.
The part of a sentence that indicates what it is about.
subjective case
The case of a pronoun when it is the subject of a clause, a subject complement, or an appositive to a subject or a subject complement.
The case of a pronoun when it is the subject of a clause, a subject complement, or an appositive to a subject or a subject complement.
subjunctive mood
The mood of a verb expressing wishes, stipulating demands, or making statements contrary to fact.
The mood of a verb expressing wishes, stipulating demands, or making statements contrary to fact.
submerged metaphor
A type of metaphor (or figurative comparison) in which one of the terms (either the vehicle or the tenor) is implied rather than stated explicitly.
A type of metaphor (or figurative comparison) in which one of the terms (either the vehicle or the tenor) is implied rather than stated explicitly.
subordinate clause
A group of words that begins with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction. A subordinate clause has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence.
A group of words that begins with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction. A subordinate clause has both a subject and a verb but (unlike an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence.
subordinating conjunction
A conjunction that introduces a dependent clause.
A conjunction that introduces a dependent clause.
subordination
Words, phrases, and clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on (or subordinate to) another.
Words, phrases, and clauses that make one element of a sentence dependent on (or subordinate to) another.
subordinator
See: subordinating conjunction
See: subordinating conjunction
substantive
A word or group of words that functions as a noun.
A word or group of words that functions as a noun.
suffix
A letter or group of letters added to the end of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending.
A letter or group of letters added to the end of a word or stem, serving to form a new word or functioning as an inflectional ending.
summary
A shortened version of a text that highlights its key points.
A shortened version of a text that highlights its key points.
superlative
The form of an adjective that suggests the most or the least of something.
The form of an adjective that suggests the most or the least of something.
suspension point
See "ellipsis" (definition #1)
See "ellipsis" (definition #1)
syllable
One or more letters representing a unit of spoken language consisting of a single uninterrupted sound.
One or more letters representing a unit of spoken language consisting of a single uninterrupted sound.
syllepsis
A kind of ellipsis in which one word (usually a verb) is understood differently in relation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs.
A kind of ellipsis in which one word (usually a verb) is understood differently in relation to two or more other words, which it modifies or governs.
syllogism
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.
symbol
A person, place, action, or thing that (by association, resemblance, or convention) represents something other than itself.
A person, place, action, or thing that (by association, resemblance, or convention) represents something other than itself.
symbolism
The use of one object (a symbol) to represent or suggest something else.
The use of one object (a symbol) to represent or suggest something else.
synathroesmus
The piling up of adjectives, often in the spirit of invective.
The piling up of adjectives, often in the spirit of invective.
synecdoche
A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole, the whole for a part, the specific for the general, the general for the specific, or the material for the thing made from it.
A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole, the whole for a part, the specific for the general, the general for the specific, or the material for the thing made from it.
synesis
A grammatical construction in which agreement or reference is determined by sense rather than the strict requirements of syntax.
A grammatical construction in which agreement or reference is determined by sense rather than the strict requirements of syntax.
syngnome
The forgiving of injuries.
The forgiving of injuries.
synonym
Words having the same or nearly the same meaning.
Words having the same or nearly the same meaning.
synonymomania
See "monologophobia."
See "monologophobia."
syntactic ambiguity
The presence of two or more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words.
The presence of two or more possible meanings within a single sentence or sequence of words.
syntactic blend
See "anacoluthon."
See "anacoluthon."
syntactic category
See parts of speech.
See parts of speech.
syntactic persistence
In psycholinguistics, a speaker's tendency to reuse the syntactic structure of a previous utterance when given a choice between two different structures having roughly the same meaning.
In psycholinguistics, a speaker's tendency to reuse the syntactic structure of a previous utterance when given a choice between two different structures having roughly the same meaning.
syntax
(1) The study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences (and one of the major components of grammar). (2) The arrangement of words in a sentence.
(1) The study of the rules that govern the way words combine to form phrases, clauses, and sentences (and one of the major components of grammar). (2) The arrangement of words in a sentence.