Palindrome - Quotation Mark
A glossary of grammatical and rhetorical terms, from PALINDROME to QUOTATION MARKS. Click on a term for definitions, examples, word history, pronunciation guide, and links to related articles.
palindrome
Word play in which a word, phrase, verse, or sentence reads the same backward or forward.
Word play in which a word, phrase, verse, or sentence reads the same backward or forward.
pangram
A sentence that uses all the letters of the alphabet.
A sentence that uses all the letters of the alphabet.
parable
A short and simple story that illustrates a lesson.
A short and simple story that illustrates a lesson.
paradox
A statement that appears to contradict itself.
A statement that appears to contradict itself.
paragraph
A group of closely related sentences that develop a central idea.
A group of closely related sentences that develop a central idea.
paralanguage
See "paralinguistics."
See "paralinguistics."
paralepsis
Emphasizing a point by seeming to pass over it.
Emphasizing a point by seeming to pass over it.
paralinguistics
The study of vocal (and sometimes non-vocal) signals beyond the basic verbal message or speech.
The study of vocal (and sometimes non-vocal) signals beyond the basic verbal message or speech.
parallelism
Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.
Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.
parallel structure
Two or more words, phrases, or clauses that are similar in length and grammatical form.
Two or more words, phrases, or clauses that are similar in length and grammatical form.
paralogism
A fallacious or defective argument or conclusion.
A fallacious or defective argument or conclusion.
paraphrase
A restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words, often to clarify meaning.
A restatement of a text or passage in another form or other words, often to clarify meaning.
parataxis
Phrases or clauses arranged independently: a coordinate, rather than a subordinate, construction.
Phrases or clauses arranged independently: a coordinate, rather than a subordinate, construction.
parechesis
The repetition of the same sound in words that are close together.
The repetition of the same sound in words that are close together.
parenthesis
(1) Either or both of the upright curved lines, ( ), used to mark off explanatory or qualifying remarks in writing. (2) The insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts the normal flow of the sentence.
(1) Either or both of the upright curved lines, ( ), used to mark off explanatory or qualifying remarks in writing. (2) The insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts the normal flow of the sentence.
parison
Corresponding structure in a series of clauses.
Corresponding structure in a series of clauses.
parody
A literary or artistic work that imitates the characteristic style of an author or a work for comic effect or ridicule.
A literary or artistic work that imitates the characteristic style of an author or a work for comic effect or ridicule.
parole
The individual expressions of language in contrast to "langue," language as an abstract system of signs.
The individual expressions of language in contrast to "langue," language as an abstract system of signs.
paromologia
An argumentative strategy (a type of concession) by which a speaker acknowledges the validity of an opponent's point in order to strengthen his or her primary claim.
An argumentative strategy (a type of concession) by which a speaker acknowledges the validity of an opponent's point in order to strengthen his or her primary claim.
paronomasia
Punning, playing with words.
Punning, playing with words.
paronym
(1) A word that is derived from the same root as another word. (2) A word linked to another by similarity of form.
(1) A word that is derived from the same root as another word. (2) A word linked to another by similarity of form.
parrhesia
Free, frank, and fearless speech.
Free, frank, and fearless speech.
parsing
A grammatical exercise that involves breaking down a text into its component parts of speech with an explanation of the form, function, and syntactical relationship of each part.
A grammatical exercise that involves breaking down a text into its component parts of speech with an explanation of the form, function, and syntactical relationship of each part.
participial phrase
A word group consisting of a present or past participle and any modifiers, objects, and complements.
A word group consisting of a present or past participle and any modifiers, objects, and complements.
participle
A verbal that functions as an adjective.
A verbal that functions as an adjective.
particle
A word that does not change its form through inflection and does not easily fit into the established system of parts of speech.
A word that does not change its form through inflection and does not easily fit into the established system of parts of speech.
parts of a speech
In classical rhetoric, the divisions of a speech: arrangement.
In classical rhetoric, the divisions of a speech: arrangement.
parts of speech
The categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences.
The categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences.
passive voice
A verb form in which the subject receives the verb's action.
A verb form in which the subject receives the verb's action.
past participle
The third principal part of a verb, created by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the base form of all regular verbs and many (but not all) irregular verbs.
The third principal part of a verb, created by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the base form of all regular verbs and many (but not all) irregular verbs.
past perfect
An aspect of the verb that designates an action which has been completed before another past action.
An aspect of the verb that designates an action which has been completed before another past action.
past progressive
A verb construction (made up of a past form of the verb "to be"--"was" or "were"--plus a present participle) that conveys a sense of ongoing action in the past.
A verb construction (made up of a past form of the verb "to be"--"was" or "were"--plus a present participle) that conveys a sense of ongoing action in the past.
past tense
A verb tense (the second principal part of a verb) indicating action that occurred in the past and which does not extend into the present.
A verb tense (the second principal part of a verb) indicating action that occurred in the past and which does not extend into the present.
pathos
The means of persuasion in classical rhetoric that appeals to the audience's emotions.
The means of persuasion in classical rhetoric that appeals to the audience's emotions.
pedagogical grammar
Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students.
Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students.
pejoration
The downgrading or depreciation of a word's meaning, as when a word with a positive sense develops a negative one.
The downgrading or depreciation of a word's meaning, as when a word with a positive sense develops a negative one.
pentad
In rhetoric, the set of five problem-solving probes developed by Kenneth Burke.
In rhetoric, the set of five problem-solving probes developed by Kenneth Burke.
percontation-mark
A late-medieval mark of punctuation used to mark the close of a rhetorical question.
A late-medieval mark of punctuation used to mark the close of a rhetorical question.
perfect aspect
A verb construction that describes events occurring in the past but linked to a later time, usually the present.
A verb construction that describes events occurring in the past but linked to a later time, usually the present.
performance grammar
A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in spontaneous dialogues.
A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in spontaneous dialogues.
performative verb
A verb that explicitly conveys the kind of speech act being performed.
A verb that explicitly conveys the kind of speech act being performed.
period
(1) A punctuation mark ( . ) indicating a full stop, placed at the end of declarative sentences and other statements thought to be complete, and after many abbreviations. (2) A sentence of several carefully balanced clauses in formal writing.
(1) A punctuation mark ( . ) indicating a full stop, placed at the end of declarative sentences and other statements thought to be complete, and after many abbreviations. (2) A sentence of several carefully balanced clauses in formal writing.
periodic sentence
Long and frequently involved sentence, marked by suspended syntax, in which the sense is not completed until the final word--usually with an emphatic climax.
Long and frequently involved sentence, marked by suspended syntax, in which the sense is not completed until the final word--usually with an emphatic climax.
periphrasis
In rhetoric, a roundabout description of something; wordiness.
In rhetoric, a roundabout description of something; wordiness.
periphrastic
A construction in which an independent word is described as having the same role as an inflection.
A construction in which an independent word is described as having the same role as an inflection.
perlocutionary
In speech-act theory, an action or state of mind brought about by, or as a consequence of, saying something.
In speech-act theory, an action or state of mind brought about by, or as a consequence of, saying something.
peroration
The closing part of an argument.
The closing part of an argument.
person
The relationship between a subject and its verb, showing whether the subject is speaking about itself (first person--"I" or "we"); being spoken to (second person--"you"); or being spoken about (third person--"he," "she," "it," or "they").
The relationship between a subject and its verb, showing whether the subject is speaking about itself (first person--"I" or "we"); being spoken to (second person--"you"); or being spoken about (third person--"he," "she," "it," or "they").
persona
Voice or mask that an author or speaker or performer puts on for a particular purpose.
Voice or mask that an author or speaker or performer puts on for a particular purpose.
personal pronoun
A pronoun that refers to a particular person, group, or thing.
A pronoun that refers to a particular person, group, or thing.
personification
A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities.
A figure of speech in which an inanimate object or abstraction is endowed with human qualities or abilities.
persuasion
The use of appeals to reasons, values, beliefs, and emotions to convince a listener or reader to think or act in a particular way.
The use of appeals to reasons, values, beliefs, and emotions to convince a listener or reader to think or act in a particular way.
phantonym
An informal term for "a word that looks as if it means one thing but means quite another" (Jack Rosenthal).
An informal term for "a word that looks as if it means one thing but means quite another" (Jack Rosenthal).
phatic communication
Small talk: the nonreferential use of language to share feelings or to establish a mood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas.
Small talk: the nonreferential use of language to share feelings or to establish a mood of sociability rather than to communicate information or ideas.
philology
The study of changes over time in a particular language or language family.
The study of changes over time in a particular language or language family.
phoneme
The smallest sound unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinct meaning.
The smallest sound unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinct meaning.
phonetics
The branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols.
The branch of linguistics that deals with the sounds of speech and their production, combination, description, and representation by written symbols.
phonology
The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds with reference to their distribution and patterning.
The branch of linguistics concerned with the study of speech sounds with reference to their distribution and patterning.
phrasal verb
A complex verb made up of a verb (usually one of action or movement) and an adverbial particle (one of direction or location).
A complex verb made up of a verb (usually one of action or movement) and an adverbial particle (one of direction or location).
phrase
Any small group of words within a sentence or a clause.
Any small group of words within a sentence or a clause.
pidgin
A simplified form of speech formed out of one or more existing languages and used by people who have no other language in common.
A simplified form of speech formed out of one or more existing languages and used by people who have no other language in common.
placeholder
A word (such as "whatchamacallit") used by speakers to signal that they don't know or can't remember a more precise word for something.
A word (such as "whatchamacallit") used by speakers to signal that they don't know or can't remember a more precise word for something.
place name
See "toponym."
See "toponym."
plagiarism
The act of using the work of another and passing it off as one's own.
The act of using the work of another and passing it off as one's own.
plain style
An informal rhetorical term used to characterize speech or writing that is simple, direct, and unambiguous.
An informal rhetorical term used to characterize speech or writing that is simple, direct, and unambiguous.
pleonasm
The use of words to emphasize what is clear without them: redundancy.
The use of words to emphasize what is clear without them: redundancy.
ploce
Repetition of a word with a new or specified sense, or with pregnant reference to its special significance.
Repetition of a word with a new or specified sense, or with pregnant reference to its special significance.
plot
The sequence of incidents or events in a narrative.
The sequence of incidents or events in a narrative.
pluperfect tense
See past perfect tense.
See past perfect tense.
plural
The form of a noun that typically denotes more than one person, thing, or instance.
The form of a noun that typically denotes more than one person, thing, or instance.
plurale tantum
A noun that appears only in the plural form and does not have a singular form.
A noun that appears only in the plural form and does not have a singular form.
point of view
The perspective from which a speaker or writer tells a story or presents information.
The perspective from which a speaker or writer tells a story or presents information.
poisoning the well
A logical fallacy (a type of ad hominem argument) in which a person attempts to place an opponent in a position from which he or she is unable to reply.
A logical fallacy (a type of ad hominem argument) in which a person attempts to place an opponent in a position from which he or she is unable to reply.
polarity
In linguistics, the distinction between positive and negative forms.
In linguistics, the distinction between positive and negative forms.
polyptoton
Repetition of words derived from the same root but with different endings.
Repetition of words derived from the same root but with different endings.
polysemy
The association of one word with two or more distinct meanings.
The association of one word with two or more distinct meanings.
polysyndeton
A style that employs a great many conjunctions (opposite of "asyndeton").
A style that employs a great many conjunctions (opposite of "asyndeton").
portmanteau word
A word formed by the blending of two or more other words.
A word formed by the blending of two or more other words.
positive
The basic, uncompared form of an adjective or adverb, as opposed to either the comparative or superlative.
The basic, uncompared form of an adjective or adverb, as opposed to either the comparative or superlative.
possessive adjective
See "possessive determiner."
See "possessive determiner."
possessive case
The inflected form of nouns and pronouns usually indicating ownership.
The inflected form of nouns and pronouns usually indicating ownership.
possessive determiner
A determiner used to express possession of the thing referenced by the following noun.
A determiner used to express possession of the thing referenced by the following noun.
possessive pronoun
A pronoun that shows ownership.
A pronoun that shows ownership.
post hoc
A fallacy in which one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier.
A fallacy in which one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it occurred earlier.
pragmatic competence
The ability to use language in a contextually appropriate fashion.
The ability to use language in a contextually appropriate fashion.
pragmatics
A branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language.
A branch of linguistics concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways in which people produce and comprehend meanings through language.
precis
A summary of a book, article, speech, or other text.
A summary of a book, article, speech, or other text.
predicate
One of the two main parts of a sentence or clause, modifying the subject and including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb.
One of the two main parts of a sentence or clause, modifying the subject and including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb.
predicative adjective
An adjective that usually comes after a linking verb and not before a noun.
An adjective that usually comes after a linking verb and not before a noun.
predigested thinking
The reduction of a complex idea to a slogan or simple formula "with all the qualifications, distinctions, and uncertainties left out" (R. H. Thouless, "Straight and Crooked Thinking").
The reduction of a complex idea to a slogan or simple formula "with all the qualifications, distinctions, and uncertainties left out" (R. H. Thouless, "Straight and Crooked Thinking").
prefix
A letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that partly indicates its meaning.
A letter or group of letters attached to the beginning of a word that partly indicates its meaning.
premise
A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn; either the major or the minor proposition of a syllogism in a deductive argument.
A proposition upon which an argument is based or from which a conclusion is drawn; either the major or the minor proposition of a syllogism in a deductive argument.
preposing
See "fronting."
See "fronting."
preposition
A word that indicates the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.
A word that indicates the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.
prepositional phrase
A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers.
A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers.
prepositional verb
An idiomatic expression that combines a verb and a preposition to make a new verb with distinct meanings.
An idiomatic expression that combines a verb and a preposition to make a new verb with distinct meanings.
prescriptive grammar
A set of norms or rules governing how a language should or should not be used rather than describing the ways in which a language is actually used.
A set of norms or rules governing how a language should or should not be used rather than describing the ways in which a language is actually used.
present participle
A verb form--made by adding "-ing" to the base form--that functions as an adjective.
A verb form--made by adding "-ing" to the base form--that functions as an adjective.
present perfect
An aspect of the verb expressing an action that began in the past and which has been completed or continues into the present.
An aspect of the verb expressing an action that began in the past and which has been completed or continues into the present.
present progressive tense
A verb tense (made up of a present participle with a form of the verb "to be") that conveys a sense of ongoing action.
A verb tense (made up of a present participle with a form of the verb "to be") that conveys a sense of ongoing action.
present tense
A verb tense that expresses action in the present time, indicates habitual actions, or expresses general truths.
A verb tense that expresses action in the present time, indicates habitual actions, or expresses general truths.
preterit
See "past tense."
See "past tense."
primary metaphor
A basic, intuitively understood metaphor--such as KNOWING IS SEEING or TIME IS MOTION--that may be combined with other primary metaphors to produce complex metaphors.
A basic, intuitively understood metaphor--such as KNOWING IS SEEING or TIME IS MOTION--that may be combined with other primary metaphors to produce complex metaphors.
primary source
Information collected firsthand from such sources as historical documents, literary texts, artistic works, experiments, surveys, and interviews.
Information collected firsthand from such sources as historical documents, literary texts, artistic works, experiments, surveys, and interviews.
principle of effability
The linguistic principle that any thought a person can have can be formulated in language, and that anything which can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another.
The linguistic principle that any thought a person can have can be formulated in language, and that anything which can be expressed in one language can also be expressed in another.
principal parts of a verb
The three forms of a verb: base form, past tense form, and past participle.
The three forms of a verb: base form, past tense form, and past participle.
process analysis
A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something.
A method of paragraph or essay development by which a writer explains step by step how something is done or how to do something.
profile
A biographical essay, customarily developed through a combination of anecdote, interview, incident, and description.
A biographical essay, customarily developed through a combination of anecdote, interview, incident, and description.
progressive aspect
A verb phrase made with a form of "be" plus "-ing" that indicates an action or condition continuing in the present, past, or future.
A verb phrase made with a form of "be" plus "-ing" that indicates an action or condition continuing in the present, past, or future.
progymnasmata
Preliminary rhetorical exercises that introduce students to basic rhetorical concepts and strategies.
Preliminary rhetorical exercises that introduce students to basic rhetorical concepts and strategies.
prolepsis
(1) Foreseeing and forestalling objections in various ways. (2) Figurative device by which a future event is presumed to have already occurred.
(1) Foreseeing and forestalling objections in various ways. (2) Figurative device by which a future event is presumed to have already occurred.
pronoun
A word that takes the place of a noun.
A word that takes the place of a noun.
pronunciation
The act or manner of speaking a word.
The act or manner of speaking a word.
proof (editing)
A trial sheet of printed material made to be checked and corrected.
A trial sheet of printed material made to be checked and corrected.
proof (rhetoric)
In rhetoric, the part of a speech or written composition that sets out the arguments in support of a thesis.
In rhetoric, the part of a speech or written composition that sets out the arguments in support of a thesis.
proofreading
The process of reviewing the final draft of a text to ensure that all surface errors have been corrected.
The process of reviewing the final draft of a text to ensure that all surface errors have been corrected.
proper noun
A noun belonging to the class of words used as names for unique individuals, events, or places.
A noun belonging to the class of words used as names for unique individuals, events, or places.
proposal
A document that offers a solution to a problem or a course of action in response to a need.
A document that offers a solution to a problem or a course of action in response to a need.
prose
Ordinary writing (both fiction and nonfiction) as distinguished from verse.
Ordinary writing (both fiction and nonfiction) as distinguished from verse.
prosopopoeia
(1) A figure of speech in which an absent or imaginary person is represented as speaking. (2) Another name for "personification."
(1) A figure of speech in which an absent or imaginary person is represented as speaking. (2) Another name for "personification."
prothesis
The addition of a letter to the beginning of a word.
The addition of a letter to the beginning of a word.
proverb
Short, pithy statement of a general truth, one that condenses common experience into memorable form.
Short, pithy statement of a general truth, one that condenses common experience into memorable form.
pseudonym
A fictitious name assumed by an individual to conceal his or her identity; a pen name.
A fictitious name assumed by an individual to conceal his or her identity; a pen name.
psittacism
Thoughtless repetition of a word or phrase; using a word without regard for its meaning.
Thoughtless repetition of a word or phrase; using a word without regard for its meaning.
psycholinguistics
The study of the mental aspects of language and speech--a branch of both linguistics and psychology.
The study of the mental aspects of language and speech--a branch of both linguistics and psychology.
public sphere
In rhetoric, the place where citizens exchange ideas, information, attitudes, and opinions.
In rhetoric, the place where citizens exchange ideas, information, attitudes, and opinions.
pun
A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.
A play on words, sometimes on different senses of the same word and sometimes on the similar sense or sound of different words.
punctuation
Set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their meanings, principally by separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses.
Set of marks used to regulate texts and clarify their meanings, principally by separating or linking words, phrases, and clauses.
qualifier
A word or phrase (such as "very") that precedes an adjective or adverb, increasing or decreasing the quality signified by the word they modify.
A word or phrase (such as "very") that precedes an adjective or adverb, increasing or decreasing the quality signified by the word they modify.
queclarative
An utterance that has the form of a question (an interrogative sentence) but the force of a statement (a declarative sentence).
An utterance that has the form of a question (an interrogative sentence) but the force of a statement (a declarative sentence).
question mark
A punctuation symbol (?) written at the end of a sentence or phrase to indicate a direct question.
A punctuation symbol (?) written at the end of a sentence or phrase to indicate a direct question.
question tag
See "tag question."
See "tag question."
quotation
The reproduction of the words of a writer or speaker.
The reproduction of the words of a writer or speaker.
quotation marks
Either of a pair of punctuation marks (" ") used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word.
Either of a pair of punctuation marks (" ") used primarily to mark the beginning and end of a passage attributed to another and repeated word for word.